Pakistan: The Garrison State – Origins, Evolution, Consequences 1947–2011

1857 Rebellion

The Indian Rebellion or War of Independence begins in the Bengal Army, rooted in dissatisfaction with British officers and the introduction of new cartridges.

1895 - Military Reorganization

The existing military structure is reorganized into the Indian Army, with recruitment priority given to Punjabis.

1917 - Lenin's Publication

Vladimir Lenin publishes his famous work "Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism," outlining the Soviet stance on colonialism.

1920 - Hijrat Movement

The Hijrat Movement begins in India, with Muslims migrating to the Soviet Union.

1924 - Jinnah's Speeches

In 1928, Muhammad Ali Jinnah delivers four speeches advocating for the "Indianization of the army" and increased Indian representation in the officer corps.

1932

The Dehradun Military Academy is established.

Late 1930s

Harold Lasswell introduces the concept of the "garrison state" to describe societies dominated by violence specialists.

March 1940

The Lahore Resolution is adopted by the Muslim League, calling for a separate Muslim state.

1942

Muhammad Ali Jinnah demands 50:50 representation in government, despite Muslims making up about a quarter of India's population.

August 1942

The "Quit India" movement begins, and Congress leaders are arrested.

1944

Dr. J. Adhikari formulates his theory that the Muslims of India are a nation.

July 1945

The Labour Party comes to power in Britain, and Clement Attlee becomes Prime Minister.

December 1945

Lord Wavell prepares the 'Breakdown Plan' for the rapid partition of India if security deteriorates.

1945

1946: The Muslim League wins regional elections with widespread Muslim support.

Early 1946

The British Cabinet Mission is sent to examine the prerequisites for the transfer of power to India.

May 16, 1946

The Cabinet Mission announces its plan for the transfer of power, rejects the demand for Pakistan, but acknowledges Muslim concerns.

June 1946

The Muslim League accepts the Cabinet Mission plan for forming an interim government, but the Congress rejects it.

July 10, 1946

Jawaharlal Nehru announces at a press conference that the Congress will not adhere to any agreements after entering the Constituent Assembly.

July 29, 1946

In response to Nehru's statements, the Muslim League withdraws its support for the Cabinet Mission plan and threatens 'Direct Action' to achieve Pakistan.

August 16, 1946

The Muslim League observes 'Direct Action Day' across India, leading to widespread violence.

December 27, 1946

Liaquat Ali Khan writes to the U.S. chargé d'affaires in India, expressing concern over the massacre of Muslims in Bihar.

February 20, 1947

Clement Attlee announces that the British government will transfer power to India by June 1948 and appoints Lord Louis Mountbatten as the last Viceroy.

March 8, 1947

The Indian National Congress supports the Sikhs' demand for the partition of Punjab.

March 24, 1947

Mountbatten assumes power as Viceroy of India and begins negotiations with Indian leaders.

May 1947

It is determined that both India and Pakistan will remain in the British Commonwealth.

1947 - Indian Independence Act Passed

The Indian Independence Act is passed, determining the status of princely states.

1947 - Joint Defense Council Renamed

The Joint Defense Council is renamed to the 'Partition Council', with Muhammad Ali Jinnah replacing Abdul Rab Nishtar.

1947 - Sir George Cunningham Returns

Sir George Cunningham returns as the Governor of the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP).

1947 - Nehru Informs Mountbatten

Nehru informs Mountbatten that a British Commander-in-Chief and several senior British officers will remain in India.

1947 - Jinnah Informs Mountbatten

Jinnah informs Mountbatten that the Commander-in-Chief of Pakistan and several senior British officers will also remain there.

July 28, 1947

In the 65th committee meeting, it becomes clear that British officers will not play a role in the event of a war between India and Pakistan.

July 29, 1947

The Indian Army Headquarters prepares a top-secret document prohibiting the use of British forces to protect Indians in ethnic conflicts after August 14.

August 11, 1947

The state of Kalat in Balochistan declares independence.

August 14, 1947

Pakistan gains independence.

August 15, 1947

Lord Mountbatten is appointed as the supreme commander of the armies of India and Pakistan.

1947 - Radcliffe Award

The Radcliffe Award, which determines the boundary between India and Pakistan, is published.

1947 - Jinnah Amends Government Act

Jinnah amends the Government of India Act 1935 to legalize Dr. Khan Sahib's government in NWFP and appoints a Muslim League government led by Abdul Qayyum Khan.

1947 - Poonch Uprising Begins

The uprising in the Poonch region of Kashmir begins.

1947 - Jinnah's Life Magazine Interview

Jinnah gives an interview to Life magazine, presenting Pakistan as a "frontline state" against Soviet communism.

1947 - Jinnah Emphasizes Alignment

In a cabinet meeting, Jinnah emphasizes Pakistan's alignment with Britain and the United States.

September 26, 1947

Mountbatten informs Field Marshal Auchinleck that the Indian government wants his removal.

October 1947

Indian forces attack the states of Junagadh and Manavadar.

October 24, 1947

Hari Singh requests assistance from India.

October 25, 1947

Colonel Iskander Mirza provides Cunningham with information about tribal invasions in Kashmir.

October 26, 1947

Maharaja Hari Singh signs the Instrument of Accession to India.

October 27, 1947

Jinnah orders General Gracy to attack Kashmir, but his superior, Auchinleck, rejects it.

January 1, 1948

The Indian government refers the Kashmir dispute to the United Nations.

March 25, 1948

Sheikh Abdullah becomes the Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir.

Late March 1948

The state of Kalat joins Pakistan under pressure.

April 21, 1948

The UN Security Council adopts the Kashmir resolution, calling for a plebiscite.

September 1948

Hyderabad State is forcibly annexed by India.

1948

ISI is established.

January 1, 1949

A ceasefire in Kashmir is established under UN supervision.

September 21, 1949

Mao Zedong proclaims the People's Republic of China.

May 1950

Liaquat Ali Khan visits the United States and expresses Pakistan's support for the US stance on Korea.

January 25, 1951

President Truman approves a study highlighting the strategic importance of India and Pakistan to the United States.

February

March 1951: At the U.S. Ambassadors' Conference in Sri Lanka, the need to nurture Pakistan as a friendly nation is emphasized.

March 1951

A pro-Soviet military coup in Pakistan is thwarted by Ayub Khan.

1951

The first shipment of arms from the United States arrives in Pakistan.

1952

Khawaja Nazimuddin declares support for Urdu as the sole national language of Pakistan, leading to unrest in East Bengal.

1953

Anti-Ahmadiyya riots begin in Pakistan.

May 1953

John Foster Dulles visits India and Pakistan.

March 1954

The United Front wins the East Bengal regional elections against West Pakistan dominance.

19 May 1954

The US-Pakistan Mutual Defense Agreement is signed.

July 1954

The United Front government is dismissed and the Communist Party is banned.

1955

Iskander Mirza becomes Governor-General.

1956

The Suez Crisis occurs.

March 23, 1956

The 1956 Constitution of Pakistan is declared, establishing the "Islamic Republic."

1957

General Ayub Khan becomes the commander of the PAF.

1957

The Eisenhower-Dulles Doctrine is proposed to contain Soviet influence in the Middle East.

October 7, 1958

Iskander Mirza abolishes the constitution, declares martial law, and appoints Ayub Khan as President.

October 27, 1958

Ayub Khan dismisses Mirza and becomes President himself.

1958

1969: The "Decade of Development" in Pakistan begins under Ayub Khan's leadership.

1959

The United States and Pakistan sign a formal military alliance.

1960

Ayub Khan is elected as President by the Basic Democrats.

December 1961

India takes Goa from the Portuguese.

1962

Ayub Khan announces Pakistan's new constitution.

1962

The Sino-Indian border war occurs.

5 November 1962

Ayub Khan writes to Kennedy, complaining about India's military threat against Pakistan.

1964

1965: Fatima Jinnah runs as an opposition candidate against Ayub Khan in the presidential election.

1965 - Rann of Kutch Conflict

The Rann of Kutch conflict occurs between India and Pakistan.

1965 - Bhutto's Press Conference

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto claims in a Karachi press conference that the US is providing military aid to India.

1965 - Ayub Khan's Address

Ayub Khan expresses his disappointment to the people of Pakistan over the US's lack of understanding of the Indian military threat.

1965 - Operation Gibraltar Begins

Operation Gibraltar is launched.

1965 - Johnson's Concern

Johnson expresses concern over the conflict between India and Pakistan.

August 29, 1965

Ayub Khan signs a directive titled "Political Objective for the Struggle in Kashmir."

August 31, 1965

Operation Grand Slam begins.

September 2, 1965

Command of Operation Grand Slam is transferred from General Akhtar Malik to General Yahya Khan.

September 6, 1965

India opens the Lahore and Sialkot fronts, starting a full-scale war with Pakistan.

September 7, 1965

China condemns India's aggression.

September 8, 1965

The U.S. Department of State announces an arms embargo on India and Pakistan.

September 20, 1965

Ayub Khan and Bhutto travel to Beijing and meet with Zhou Enlai.

December 1965

Ayub Khan visits Washington.

1966

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman presents the Six-Point Program for the autonomy of East Pakistan.

1969

The state of Swat is integrated into NWFP.

1969 - Publication of 'The Myth of Independence'

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto publishes his book 'The Myth of Independence'.

1969 - Restoration of Law and Order

General Yahya Khan announces that law and order have been restored and the next goal is to return to democracy.

1969 - Introduction of Legal Framework Order

Yahya Khan introduces the Legal Framework Order (LFO) as the basis for elections and transfer of power.

1970 - Finalization of LFO

The LFO is finalized, dissolving the One Unit in West Pakistan and replacing parity with 'one man, one vote'.

1970 - Ethnic Tensions in Sindh

Ethnic tensions begin between Sindhis and Urdu-speaking migrants in Sindh.

September 1970

The 'Black September' uprising in Jordan is suppressed by the Royal Army.

August 1970

General Hakim Arshad Qureshi claims that the Awami League used coercive tactics during the election campaign.

December 1970

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's Awami Party wins the general elections in East Pakistan.

11 December 1970

The directive for 'Operation Blitz' is signed and issued by Yahya Khan.

17 January 1971

Yahya Khan and some other generals visit Bhutto in Larkana.

February 1971

General Tikka Khan is appointed as the military commander of East Pakistan.

23

March 24, 1971: The stance of Awami League leaders hardens, and they openly talk about a 'Confederation of Pakistan.'

Operation Searchlight

March 26, 1971: Operation 'Searchlight' begins and Mujib is arrested.

Late March 1971

The situation in Pakistan begins to deteriorate and the United States expresses concern over Pakistan's security.

1971 War

Pakistan starts a war with India, leading to Pakistan's defeat and the creation of Bangladesh.

1971 - Kissinger Meets Gandhi

Henry Kissinger meets with Indira Gandhi.

1971 - Kissinger in Pakistan

Kissinger arrives in Pakistan and states the likelihood of war with India is 'two to three'.

1971 - China joins the UN

China gains membership in the United Nations.

1971 - India attacks East Pakistan

Full-scale Indian military attack on East Pakistan begins.

1971 - Pakistani ambassador protests

Pakistan's ambassador to the US, Agha Hilaly, protests US support for India.

1971 - US acts in UN Security Council

The United States initiates proceedings in the UN Security Council.

1971 - Pakistan surrenders in Dhaka

Pakistan surrenders in Dhaka.

January 7, 1972

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto announces the nationalization of major heavy industries.

March 1, 1972

Bhutto's land reforms are introduced under Martial Law Regulation No. 115.

June 1972

The Simla Agreement is signed between India and Pakistan.

February 1973

The Pakistani government claims to have discovered a shipment of weapons at the Iraqi embassy in Islamabad.

February 12, 1973

The Balochistan government is dismissed.

1973 - First Clash at Tandoori

The first clash occurs at Tandoori near Sibi.

1973 - Army Enters Mari

The army enters the Mari region.

1973 - Colonel Imam Sent for Training

Colonel Imam is sent to the United States for training.

1974 - India Conducts Nuclear Test

India conducts its nuclear weapon test.

1974 - Islamic Summit in Lahore

The Islamic summit is held in Lahore.

1976

Bhutto plans for the 1977 general elections.

January 7, 1977

The government announces that general elections will be held on March 7.

March 7, 1977

The Pakistan National Alliance (PNA) is formed as a right-wing Islamic coalition.

April 1977

Bhutto claims the United States is funding an 'international conspiracy' to remove him.

July 5, 1977

General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq conducts a military coup against Bhutto's government.

September 16, 1977

Bhutto is arrested for the political murder of an opposition leader in 1974.

1978

A rebellion occurs in the Nuristan region of Afghanistan.

August 23, 1978

France withdraws from the nuclear reprocessing plant deal with Pakistan under US pressure.

December 1978

A peace treaty is signed between Afghanistan and the Soviet Union.

September 1979

Hafizullah Amin seizes power in Afghanistan and Taraki is killed.

1979

Zia-ul-Haq issues the Hudood Ordinance.

November 17, 1979

The government postpones national and provincial elections and bans political parties.

November 21, 1979

News of the attempt to seize the Kaaba in Mecca is released.

December 27, 1979

The Soviet Red Army enters Afghanistan and Amin is assassinated.

1980

The Federal Shariat Court is established.

1980

A directive is issued for female government employees mandating Islamic dress.

1982

Zia-ul-Haq introduces the blasphemy law.

1983

Zia-ul-Haq visits Delhi.

1983

30,000 Pakistani military personnel are deployed abroad, mainly in the Middle East.

September 12, 1983

Deputy Assistant Secretary of State Marshall expresses U.S. concerns about Pakistan's nuclear program.

1984 - Zia-ul-Haq's Referendum

Zia-ul-Haq organizes a referendum on the Islamic nature of Pakistan.

1984 - MQM Founded

The Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM) is founded by Altaf Hussain.

1984 - Indira Gandhi Assassinated

Indira Gandhi is assassinated.

1985 - Non-Party Elections

Zia-ul-Haq holds national elections with non-party candidates.

1985 - Zia-ul-Haq Visits India

Zia-ul-Haq visits India, and both countries agree not to attack each other's nuclear facilities.

1986

Penalties for blasphemy become harsher, including the death penalty.

1987

It becomes clear that the Red Army will soon be forced to withdraw from Afghanistan.

Early 1987

Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan claims that Pakistan has succeeded in enriching uranium to weapons-grade.